Advanced Lane Finding Project

The goals / steps of this project are the following:

• Compute the camera calibration matrix and distortion coefficients given a set of chessboard images.
• Apply a distortion correction to raw images.
• Use color transforms, gradients, etc., to create a thresholded binary image.
• Apply a perspective transform to rectify binary image ("birds-eye view").
• Detect lane pixels and fit to find the lane boundary.
• Determine the curvature of the lane and vehicle position with respect to center.
• Warp the detected lane boundaries back onto the original image.
• Output visual display of the lane boundaries and numerical estimation of lane curvature and vehicle position.

import numpy as np
import cv2
import glob
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.image as mpimg
from matplotlib.patches import Polygon

%matplotlib inline

# constants used for testing purpose only
CALIBRATION_IMAGES = 'camera_cal/calibration*.jpg'
ORIGINAL_IMAGES = 'test_images/*.jpg'

# Arrays to store object points and image points from all the images.
objpoints = [] # 3d points in real world space
imgpoints = [] # 2d points in image plane.

# number of chessboard corners
nx = 9
ny = 6

# window settings
window_width = 50 
window_height = 80 # Break image into 9 vertical layers since image height is 720
margin = 100 # How much to slide left and right for searching

Compute the camera calibration matrix and distortion coefficients given a set of chessboard images.

def camera_calibration(images, nx, ny, show=False):
    # prepare object points, like (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (2,0,0) ....,(6,4,0),(6,5,0),...
    objp = np.zeros((nx*ny,3), np.float32)
    objp[:,:2] = np.mgrid[0:nx,0:ny].T.reshape(-1,2)

    # Make a list of calibration images
    images = glob.glob(images)

    # Step through the list and search for chessboard corners
    for fname in images:
        
        img = cv2.imread(fname)
        corner_img = np.copy(img)
    
        gray = cv2.cvtColor(img,cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
    
        # Find the chessboard corners
        ret, corners = cv2.findChessboardCorners(gray, (nx,ny),None)
    
        # If found, add object points, image points
        if ret == True:
            objpoints.append(objp)
            imgpoints.append(corners)

            if show:
                # Draw and display the corners
                cv2.drawChessboardCorners(corner_img, (nx,ny), corners, ret)
                f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10,5))
                ax1.imshow(cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
                ax1.set_title('Original Image', fontsize=18)
                ax2.imshow(cv2.cvtColor(corner_img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
                ax2.set_title('With Corners', fontsize=18)

    # Camera calibration, given object points, image points, and the shape of the grayscale image
    if (len(objpoints) > 0):
        # Camera successfully calibrated.
        print("Camera successfully calibrated.")
        ret, mtx, dist, rvecs, tvecs = cv2.calibrateCamera(objpoints, imgpoints, gray.shape[::-1], None, None)
    else:
        # Unable to calibrate the camera.
        print("Unable to calibrate the camera.")
        ret, mtx, dist, rvecs, tvecs = (None, None, None, None, None)
    return mtx, dist

#test camera calibration
mtx, dist = camera_calibration(CALIBRATION_IMAGES, nx, ny, show=True)

Camera successfully calibrated.

Apply a distortion correction to raw images.

def undistort(img, mtx, dist, undist_image='', show=False):
    # Test undistortion on an image
    img_size = (img.shape[1], img.shape[0])
    
    undist = cv2.undistort(img, mtx, dist, None, mtx)
    
    if undist_image != '':
        mpimg.imsave(undist_image,undist)

    # Visualize undistortion
    if show:
        f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(20,10))
        ax1.imshow(img)
        ax1.set_title('Original Image', fontsize=30)
        ax2.imshow(undist)
        ax2.set_title('Undistorted Image', fontsize=30)

    return undist

#test undistort on calibration image
cal_img = cv2.imread('camera_cal/calibration2.jpg')
cal_img = cv2.cvtColor(cal_img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
_ = undistort(cal_img, mtx, dist,'output_images/calibration2_undistortion.jpg', show=True)

#Apply undistort on test images
images = glob.glob(ORIGINAL_IMAGES)
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    _ = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist, fname.replace('test_images','output_images').replace('.jpg', '_undist.jpg'), show=True)

Use color transforms, gradients, etc., to create a thresholded binary image.

def threshold(img, b_thresh=(145, 200), l_thresh=(215, 255),out_image='', show = False):
    img = np.copy(img)

    # Generate binary thresholded images
    b_channel = cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_RGB2Lab)[:,:,2]
    l_channel = cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_RGB2LUV)[:,:,0]  
    
    # Set the upper and lower thresholds for the b channel
    b_thresh_min = b_thresh[0]
    b_thresh_max = b_thresh[1]
    b_binary = np.zeros_like(b_channel)
    b_binary[(b_channel >= b_thresh_min) & (b_channel <= b_thresh_max)] = 1
    
    # Set the upper and lower thresholds for the l channel
    l_thresh_min = l_thresh[0]
    l_thresh_max = l_thresh[1]
    l_binary = np.zeros_like(l_channel)
    l_binary[(l_channel >= l_thresh_min) & (l_channel <= l_thresh_max)] = 1

    combined_binary = np.zeros_like(b_binary)
    combined_binary[(l_binary == 1) | (b_binary == 1)] = 1
    
    if out_image != '':
        plt.imsave(out_image.replace('.jpg', '_b_ch.jpg'), b_binary, cmap='gray')
        plt.imsave(out_image.replace('.jpg', '_l_ch.jpg'), l_binary, cmap='gray')
        plt.imsave(out_image.replace('.jpg', '_thresh.jpg'), combined_binary, cmap='gray')
        
    if show:
        f, (ax1, ax2, ax3, ax4) = plt.subplots(1, 4, figsize=(20, 10))
        ax1.set_title('Undistorted image', fontsize=16)
        ax1.imshow(img)
        ax2.set_title('b_binary', fontsize=16)
        ax2.imshow(b_binary,cmap='gray')
        ax3.set_title('l_binary', fontsize=16)
        ax3.imshow(l_binary,cmap='gray')
        ax4.set_title('Thresholded', fontsize=16)
        ax4.imshow(combined_binary,cmap='gray')
        
    return combined_binary

#test color transform
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    _ = threshold(undist,out_image=fname.replace('test_images','output_images'), show=True)

Apply a perspective transform to rectify binary image ("birds-eye view").

def perspective(thresh, persp_image='', show=False):
    # Define calibration box in source (original) and destination (desired or warped) coordinates
    img_size = (thresh.shape[1], thresh.shape[0])

    src = np.float32(
        [[(img_size[0] / 2) - 40, img_size[1] / 2 + 100], 
        [((img_size[0] / 6) - 50), img_size[1]],
        [(img_size[0] * 5 / 6) + 80, img_size[1]], 
        [(img_size[0] / 2 + 80), img_size[1] / 2 + 100]])
    
    dst = np.float32(
        [[(img_size[0] / 4), 0],
        [(img_size[0] / 4), img_size[1]],
        [(img_size[0] * 3 / 4), img_size[1]],
        [(img_size[0] * 3 / 4), 0]])
    
    # Compute the perspective transfor, M
    M = cv2.getPerspectiveTransform(src, dst)

    # Compute the inverse perspective transfor also by swapping the input parameters
    Minv = cv2.getPerspectiveTransform(dst, src)
    
    # Create warped image - uses linear interpolation
    warped = cv2.warpPerspective(thresh, M, img_size, flags=cv2.INTER_LINEAR)

    if persp_image != '':
        if len(thresh.shape) == 2:
            plt.imsave(persp_image, warped, cmap='gray')
        else:
            plt.imsave(persp_image, warped)
    
    if show:
        f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(20, 10))
        ax1.plot(Polygon(src).get_xy()[:, 0], Polygon(src).get_xy()[:, 1], color='red')
        if len(thresh.shape) == 2:
            ax1.set_title('Thresholded image', fontsize=16)
            ax1.imshow(thresh, cmap='gray')
        else:
            ax1.set_title('Undistorted image', fontsize=16)
            ax1.imshow(thresh)
        ax2.set_title('Perspective Transformed Image', fontsize=16)
        ax2.plot(Polygon(dst).get_xy()[:, 0], Polygon(dst).get_xy()[:, 1], color='red')
        ax2.imshow(warped, cmap='gray')
   
    return warped, M, Minv

#test perspective transform
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    thresh = threshold(undist)
    _ = perspective(thresh, fname.replace('test_images','output_images').replace('.jpg','_persp.jpg'), show=True)

Detect lane pixels and fit to find the lane boundary.

def window_mask(width, height, img_ref, center,level):
    output = np.zeros_like(img_ref)
    output[int(img_ref.shape[0]-(level+1)*height):int(img_ref.shape[0]-level*height),max(0,int(center-width/2)):min(int(center+width/2),img_ref.shape[1])] = 1
    return output

g_l_center = -1
g_r_center = -1
def find_window_centroids(image, window_width, window_height, margin):
    
    window_centroids = [] # Store the (left,right) window centroid positions per level
    window = np.ones(window_width) # Create our window template that we will use for convolutions
    
    # First find the two starting positions for the left and right lane by using np.sum to get the vertical image slice
    # and then np.convolve the vertical image slice with the window template 
    
    # Sum quarter bottom of image to get slice, could use a different ratio
    global g_l_center
    global g_r_center
    l_sum = np.sum(image[int(3*image.shape[0]/4):,:int(image.shape[1]/2)], axis=0)
    l_center = np.argmax(np.convolve(window,l_sum))-window_width/2
    r_sum = np.sum(image[int(3*image.shape[0]/4):,int(image.shape[1]/2):], axis=0)
    r_center = np.argmax(np.convolve(window,r_sum))-window_width/2+int(image.shape[1]/2)

    if g_l_center == -1 or (g_l_center > 0 and abs(g_l_center - l_center) < 100):
        g_l_center = l_center
    else:
        l_center = g_l_center
    
    if g_r_center == -1 or (g_r_center > 0 and abs(g_r_center - r_center) < 100):
        g_r_center = r_center
    else:
        r_center = g_r_center

        # Add what we found for the first layer
    window_centroids.append((image.shape[0]-(window_height/2), l_center,r_center))
    
    l_drift = 0
    r_drift = 0
    l_center_old = l_center
    r_center_old = r_center
    l_count=1
    r_count=1
    l_margin = margin
    r_margin = margin
    # Go through each layer looking for max pixel locations
    for level in range(1,(int)(image.shape[0]/window_height)):
        # convolve the window into the vertical slice of the image
        image_layer = np.sum(image[int(image.shape[0]-(level+1)*window_height):int(image.shape[0]-level*window_height),:], axis=0)
        conv_signal = np.convolve(window, image_layer)
        # Find the best left centroid by using past left center as a reference
        # Use window_width/2 as offset because convolution signal reference is at right side of window, not center of window
        offset = window_width/2
        l_min_index = int(max(l_center+offset-l_margin,0))
        l_max_index = int(min(l_center+offset+l_margin,image.shape[1]))
        if max(conv_signal[l_min_index:l_max_index]) > 40000:
            l_center_old = l_center
            l_center = np.argmax(conv_signal[l_min_index:l_max_index])+l_min_index-offset
            drift = l_center - l_center_old
            l_drift = (l_drift*(l_count-1) + drift)/l_count
            l_count+=1
        else:
            l_center += l_drift
            l_margin += abs(l_drift)
        # Find the best right centroid by using past right center as a reference
        r_min_index = int(max(r_center+offset-r_margin,0))
        r_max_index = int(min(r_center+offset+r_margin,image.shape[1]))
        if max(conv_signal[r_min_index:r_max_index]) > 40000:
            r_center_old = r_center
            r_center = np.argmax(conv_signal[r_min_index:r_max_index])+r_min_index-offset
            drift = r_center - r_center_old
            r_drift = (r_drift*(r_count-1) + drift)/r_count
            r_count+=1
        else:
            r_center += r_drift
            r_margin += abs(r_drift)
        # Add what we found for that layer
        window_centroids.append((image.shape[0]-((level+0.5)*window_height), l_center,r_center))

    return window_centroids

def draw_centroids(warped, window_image='', show=False):
    warped*=255
    window_centroids = find_window_centroids(warped, window_width, window_height, margin)

    # If we found any window centers
    if len(window_centroids) > 0:

        # Points used to draw all the left and right windows
        l_points = np.zeros_like(warped)
        r_points = np.zeros_like(warped)

        # Go through each level and draw the windows 
        for level in range(0,len(window_centroids)):
            # Window_mask is a function to draw window areas
            l_mask = window_mask(window_width,window_height,warped,window_centroids[level][1],level)
            r_mask = window_mask(window_width,window_height,warped,window_centroids[level][2],level)
            # Add graphic points from window mask here to total pixels found 
            l_points[(l_points == 255) | ((l_mask == 1) ) ] = 255
            r_points[(r_points == 255) | ((r_mask == 1) ) ] = 255

        # Draw the results
        template = np.array(r_points+l_points,np.uint8) # add both left and right window pixels together
        zero_channel = np.zeros_like(template) # create a zero color channel
        template = np.array(cv2.merge((zero_channel,template,zero_channel)),np.uint8) # make window pixels green        
        warpage = np.array(cv2.merge((warped,warped,warped)),np.uint8) # making the original road pixels 3 color channels
        output = cv2.addWeighted(warpage, 1, template, 0.5, 0.0) # overlay the orignal road image with window results

    # If no window centers found, just display orginal road image
    else:
        print("no window centroids found")
        output = np.array(cv2.merge((warped,warped,warped)),np.uint8)
    
    if window_image != '':
        plt.imsave(window_image, output)
        
    if show:
        # Display the final results
        plt.imshow(output)
        plt.title('window fitting results')
        plt.show()
    return window_centroids

#test sliding window
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    thresh = threshold(undist)
    warped,_,_ = perspective(thresh)
    _ = draw_centroids(warped,window_image=fname.replace('test_images','output_images').replace('.jpg','_window.jpg'), show=True)

Determine the curvature of the lane and vehicle position with respect to center.

def measure_curvature_real(img_shape, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix):
    '''
    Calculates the curvature of polynomial functions in meters.
    '''        
    
    # Fit a second order polynomial to pixel positions in each fake lane line
    # Fit new polynomials to x,y in world space
    left_fit_cr = np.polyfit(ploty*ym_per_pix, left_fitx*xm_per_pix, 2)
    right_fit_cr = np.polyfit(ploty*ym_per_pix, right_fitx*xm_per_pix, 2)
    # Define y-value where we want radius of curvature
    # We'll choose the maximum y-value, corresponding to the bottom of the image
    y_eval = np.max(ploty)
    
    # Calculation of R_curve (radius of curvature)
    left_curverad = ((1 + (2*left_fit_cr[0]*y_eval*ym_per_pix + left_fit_cr[1])**2)**1.5) / np.absolute(2*left_fit_cr[0])
    right_curverad = ((1 + (2*right_fit_cr[0]*y_eval*ym_per_pix + right_fit_cr[1])**2)**1.5) / np.absolute(2*right_fit_cr[0])
    
    left_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, left_fitx, 2)
    right_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, right_fitx, 2)
    
    left_fitx = left_fit[0]*ploty**2 + left_fit[1]*ploty + left_fit[2]
    right_fitx = right_fit[0]*ploty**2 + right_fit[1]*ploty + right_fit[2]
    
    ## Image mid horizontal position 
    mid_imgx = img_shape[1]//2

    ## Car position with respect to the lane
    car_pos = (left_fitx[-1] + right_fitx[-1])/2
    
    center_offset = (mid_imgx - car_pos) * xm_per_pix
    
    return left_curverad, right_curverad, center_offset

#test curvature calculation
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    thresh = threshold(undist)
    warped,_,_ = perspective(thresh)
    window_centroids = draw_centroids(warped)

    # Define conversions in x and y from pixels space to meters
    ym_per_pix = 30/720 # meters per pixel in y dimension
    xm_per_pix = 3.7/700 # meters per pixel in x dimension

    # Curve fitting
    #print(window_centroids)
    window_centroids=np.array(window_centroids)
    ploty=window_centroids[:,0]
    leftx=window_centroids[:,1]
    rightx=window_centroids[:,2]
    left_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, leftx, 2)
    left_fitx = left_fit[0]*ploty**2 + left_fit[1]*ploty + left_fit[2]
    right_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, rightx, 2)
    right_fitx = right_fit[0]*ploty**2 + right_fit[1]*ploty + right_fit[2]
    
    left_curverad, right_curverad, center_offset = measure_curvature_real(warped.shape, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix)
    print('Left line curvature:', left_curverad, 'm')
    print('Right line curvature:', right_curverad, 'm')
    print ('Car offset from center:', center_offset, 'm.')    

Left line curvature: 14284.1432313 m
Right line curvature: 4855.86355277 m
Car offset from center: 0.217595238095 m.
Left line curvature: 3708.37149542 m
Right line curvature: 534.785039061 m
Car offset from center: -0.0787571428571 m.
Left line curvature: 562.579537785 m
Right line curvature: 812.258367317 m
Car offset from center: 0.735867532468 m.
Left line curvature: 1962.62550454 m
Right line curvature: 1220.09024464 m
Car offset from center: -0.0475313852814 m.
Left line curvature: 2301.35527277 m
Right line curvature: 843.062564307 m
Car offset from center: -0.378028679654 m.
Left line curvature: 6075.96731258 m
Right line curvature: 7833.2635649 m
Car offset from center: 0.500845454545 m.
Left line curvature: 2135.14005355 m
Right line curvature: 4870.60542129 m
Car offset from center: 0.552717532468 m.
Left line curvature: 1178.70825044 m
Right line curvature: 814.777334502 m
Car offset from center: -0.260137229437 m.

Warp the detected lane boundaries back onto the original image.

def draw_lane(undist, persp, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, Minv, lane_image='', show=False):
    # Create an image to draw the lines on
    persp_zero = np.zeros_like(persp).astype(np.uint8)
    color_persp = np.dstack((persp_zero, persp_zero, persp_zero))

    pts_left = np.array([np.transpose(np.vstack([left_fitx, ploty]))])
    pts_right = np.array([np.flipud(np.transpose(np.vstack([right_fitx, ploty])))])
    pts = np.hstack((pts_left, pts_right))

    # Draw the lane onto the warped blank image
    cv2.fillPoly(color_persp, np.int_([pts]), (0,255, 0))

    # Warp the blank back to original image space using inverse perspective matrix (Minv)
    inv_persp = cv2.warpPerspective(color_persp, Minv, (undist.shape[1], undist.shape[0])) 
    #print(inv_persp)
    #print(undist)
    # Combine the result with the original image
    lane = cv2.addWeighted(undist, 1, inv_persp, 0.3, 0)

    if lane_image != '':
        plt.imsave(lane_image, lane)
    
    if show:
        f, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(20, 10))
        ax1.set_title('Undistorted image', fontsize=16)
        ax1.imshow(undist)
        ax2.set_title('Detected Lane', fontsize=16)
        ax2.imshow(lane)
    
    return lane

#test lane image
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    thresh = threshold(undist)
    warped,M,Minv = perspective(thresh)
    window_centroids = draw_centroids(warped)

    # Define conversions in x and y from pixels space to meters
    ym_per_pix = 30/720 # meters per pixel in y dimension
    xm_per_pix = 3.7/700 # meters per pixel in x dimension

    # Curve fitting
    #print(window_centroids)
    window_centroids=np.array(window_centroids)
    ploty=window_centroids[:,0]
    leftx=window_centroids[:,1]
    rightx=window_centroids[:,2]
    left_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, leftx, 2)
    left_fitx = left_fit[0]*ploty**2 + left_fit[1]*ploty + left_fit[2]
    right_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, rightx, 2)
    right_fitx = right_fit[0]*ploty**2 + right_fit[1]*ploty + right_fit[2]
    
    lane = draw_lane(undist, warped, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, Minv,lane_image=fname.replace('test_images','output_images').replace('.jpg','_lane.jpg') , show=True)

Output visual display of the lane boundaries and numerical estimation of lane curvature and vehicle position.

def caption(lane, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix, capt_image='', show=False):    
    
    left_curverad, right_curverad, center_offset = measure_curvature_real(warped.shape, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix)
    
    # Display lane curvature
    capt = lane.copy()
    cv2.putText(capt, 'Left lane line curvature: {:.2f} m'.format(left_curverad), 
                (60, 60), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX, 1.5, (255,255,255), 5)
    cv2.putText(capt, 'Right lane line curvature: {:.2f} m'.format(right_curverad), 
                (60, 110), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX, 1.5, (255,255,255), 5)
    
    # Display car offset
    cv2.putText(capt, 'Horizontal car offset: {:.2f} m'.format(center_offset), 
                (60, 160), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX, 1.5, (255,255,255), 5)
    
    if capt_image != '':
        plt.imsave(capt_image, capt)
        
    if show:
        plt.imshow(capt)
    
    return capt

# test caption image
for fname in images:
    imgs = cv2.imread(fname)
    imgs = cv2.cvtColor(imgs, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
    undist = undistort(imgs, mtx, dist)
    thresh = threshold(undist)
    warped,M,Minv = perspective(thresh)
    window_centroids = draw_centroids(warped)

    # Define conversions in x and y from pixels space to meters
    ym_per_pix = 30/720 # meters per pixel in y dimension
    xm_per_pix = 3.7/700 # meters per pixel in x dimension

    # Curve fitting
    #print(window_centroids)
    window_centroids=np.array(window_centroids)
    ploty=window_centroids[:,0]
    leftx=window_centroids[:,1]
    rightx=window_centroids[:,2]
    left_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, leftx, 2)
    left_fitx = left_fit[0]*ploty**2 + left_fit[1]*ploty + left_fit[2]
    right_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, rightx, 2)
    right_fitx = right_fit[0]*ploty**2 + right_fit[1]*ploty + right_fit[2]
    
    #left_curverad, right_curverad, center_offset = measure_curvature_real(warped.shape, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix)
    #print('Left line curvature:', left_curverad, 'm')
    #print('Right line curvature:', right_curverad, 'm')
    #print ('Car offset from center:', center_offset, 'm.')
    lane = draw_lane(undist, warped, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, Minv, show=True)
    capt = caption(lane, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix,capt_image=fname.replace('test_images','output_images').replace('.jpg','_caption.jpg'), show=True)    

Pipeline

class Pipeline:
    def __init__(self):
        # Arrays to store object points and image points from all the images.
        objpoints = [] # 3d points in real world space
        imgpoints = [] # 2d points in image plane.
    
        CALIBRATION_IMAGES = 'camera_cal/calibration*.jpg'
        
        # number of chessboard corners
        nx = 9
        ny = 6

        self.mtx, self.dist = camera_calibration(CALIBRATION_IMAGES, nx, ny)
        
    def process(self,img):    

        # window settings
        window_width = 50 
        window_height = 80 # Break image into 9 vertical layers since image height is 720
        margin = 100 # How much to slide left and right for searching

        undist = undistort(img, mtx, dist)
        thresh = threshold(undist)
        warped,M,Minv = perspective(thresh)
        window_centroids = draw_centroids(warped)

        # Define conversions in x and y from pixels space to meters
        ym_per_pix = 30/720 # meters per pixel in y dimension
        xm_per_pix = 3.7/700 # meters per pixel in x dimension

        # Curve fitting
        #print(window_centroids)
        window_centroids=np.array(window_centroids)
        ploty=window_centroids[:,0]
        leftx=window_centroids[:,1]
        rightx=window_centroids[:,2]
        left_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, leftx, 2)
        left_fitx = left_fit[0]*ploty**2 + left_fit[1]*ploty + left_fit[2]
        right_fit = np.polyfit(ploty, rightx, 2)
        right_fitx = right_fit[0]*ploty**2 + right_fit[1]*ploty + right_fit[2]

        #left_curverad, right_curverad, center_offset = measure_curvature_real(warped.shape, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix)
        #print('Left line curvature:', left_curverad, 'm')
        #print('Right line curvature:', right_curverad, 'm')
        #print ('Car offset from center:', center_offset, 'm.')
        lane = draw_lane(undist, warped, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, Minv)
        capt = caption(lane, left_fitx, right_fitx, ploty, ym_per_pix, xm_per_pix)    
        return capt

Test on Project Video

# Import everything needed to edit/save/watch video clips
from moviepy.editor import VideoFileClip
from IPython.display import HTML

def find_lane_in_video(input_video, output_video):
    clip1 = VideoFileClip(input_video)
    p1 = Pipeline()
    white_clip = clip1.fl_image(p1.process) #NOTE: this function expects color images!!
    %time white_clip.write_videofile(output_video, audio=False)    

def show_video(VIDEO):
    return HTML("""
        <video width="960" height="540" controls>
        <source src="{0}">
        </video>
    """.format(VIDEO))

Test on Project Video

PROJECT_VIDEO = 'project_video.mp4'
PROJECT_VIDEO_OUTPUT = 'project_video_output.mp4'
find_lane_in_video(PROJECT_VIDEO, PROJECT_VIDEO_OUTPUT)

Camera successfully calibrated.
[MoviePy] >>>> Building video project_video_output.mp4
[MoviePy] Writing video project_video_output.mp4

100%|█████████▉| 1260/1261 [05:10<00:00,  4.26it/s]

[MoviePy] Done.
[MoviePy] >>>> Video ready: project_video_output.mp4 

CPU times: user 2min 57s, sys: 2.8 s, total: 2min 59s
Wall time: 5min 13s

show_video(PROJECT_VIDEO_OUTPUT)

Test on Challenge video

CHALLENGE_VIDEO = 'challenge_video.mp4'
CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT = 'challenge_video_output.mp4'
find_lane_in_video(CHALLENGE_VIDEO, CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT)

Camera successfully calibrated.
[MoviePy] >>>> Building video challenge_video_output.mp4
[MoviePy] Writing video challenge_video_output.mp4

100%|██████████| 485/485 [01:55<00:00,  3.99it/s]

[MoviePy] Done.
[MoviePy] >>>> Video ready: challenge_video_output.mp4 

CPU times: user 1min 7s, sys: 1.33 s, total: 1min 8s
Wall time: 1min 58s

show_video(CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT)

Test on Harder Challenge video

HARDER_CHALLENGE_VIDEO = 'harder_challenge_video.mp4'
HARDER_CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT = 'harder_challenge_video_output.mp4'
find_lane_in_video(CHALLENGE_VIDEO, CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT)

Camera successfully calibrated.
[MoviePy] >>>> Building video challenge_video_output.mp4
[MoviePy] Writing video challenge_video_output.mp4

100%|██████████| 485/485 [01:56<00:00,  4.11it/s]

[MoviePy] Done.
[MoviePy] >>>> Video ready: challenge_video_output.mp4 

CPU times: user 1min 7s, sys: 1.08 s, total: 1min 8s
Wall time: 1min 59s

show_video(HARDER_CHALLENGE_VIDEO_OUTPUT)